This swath of territory remained in the Byzantine Empire for two centuries. A significant cultural shift occurred in the early seventh century when Heraclius r. This caused religious tensions with the church in Rome that began in the fourth century, and resulted in seven Ecumenical Councils over six hundred years. From the tenth century to the fifteenth, the empire experienced periods of peace and prosperity, as well as war and economic downturns.
In the late eleventh century, the empire lost much of Asia Minor to the Turks, a temporary setback that foreshadowed the eventual weakening of Constantinople and the further loss of territory to the growing Ottoman Empire. In , the Ottoman Turks invaded and captured Constantinople, bringing the Byzantine Empire to an end.
Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious and, for the most part, highly conventionalized, following traditional models that translate their carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms. Painting in frescos , mosaics , and illuminated manuscripts , and on wood panels were the main, two-dimensional media.
Manuscript painting preserved some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works. Figurative sculpture was very rare except for small, carved ivories. Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought-after in Western Europe, where it maintained a continuous influence on medieval art until near the end of the period.
This was especially true in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the twelfth century. However, few incoming influences affected Byzantine style. By means of the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church, Byzantine forms and styles spread throughout the Orthodox world and beyond. Ascension scene from the Rabula Gospel : Miniatures of the sixth-century Rabula Gospel display the more abstract and symbolic nature of Byzantine art.
Early Byzantine architecture drew upon the earlier elements of Roman architecture. After the fall of the Western Empire, several churches, including the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and San Vitale in Ravenna, were built as centrally planned structures. However, stylistic drift, technological advancement, and political and territorial changes gradually resulted in the Greek-cross plan in church architecture.
Buildings increased in geometric complexity. Brick and plaster were used in addition to stone for the decoration of important public structures. Classical orders were used more freely.
Mosaics replaced carved decoration. Complex domes rested upon massive piers , and windows filtered light through thin sheets of alabaster to softly illuminate interiors. Influences from Byzantine architecture, particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania. Most of the surviving structures are sacred in nature; secular buildings are mostly known through contemporaneous descriptions. Plan of the katholikon church of the Pelekete monastery : The plan of katholikon church provides the typical layout of Byzantine churches after the eighth century.
The Byzantine Emperor Justinian I launched an ambitious building program to develop holy sites to restore the glory of the Roman Empire. This attempt at restoration included an ambitious building program in Constantinople and elsewhere in the empire, and is the most substantial architectural achievement by one person in history.
Justinian I from San Vitale in Ravenna : Byzantine Emperor Justinian forcefully pushed for the spread of Christianity along with the expansion of his empire. One notable structure for which Justinian was responsible is the Hagia Sophia, or Church of Holy Wisdom, built by Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, both of whom would oversee most building projects that Justinian ordered within Constantinople.
Like most Byzantine churches of this time, the Hagia Sophia is centrally planned , with the dome serving as its focal point. Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles plan for the Hagia Sophia : a Plan of the gallery upper half ; b Plan of the ground floor lower half.
The vast interior has a complex structure. The nave is covered by a central dome that at its maximum is over feet from floor level and rests on an arcade of 40 arched windows.
Although the dome appears circular at first glance, repairs to its structure have left it somewhat elliptical, with its diameter varying between and nearly feet. The dome of Hagia Sophia has spurred particular interest for many art historians, architects, and engineers because of the innovative way the original architects envisioned it. The cupola is carried on four, spherical, triangular pendentives , an element that was first fully realized in this building.
The pendentives implement the transition from the circular base of the dome to the rectangular base below to restrain the lateral forces of the dome and allow its weight to flow downwards. They were later reinforced with buttresses. At the western entrance side and the eastern liturgical side are arched openings that are extended by half domes of identical diameter to the central dome, and carried on smaller semi-domed exedras.
A hierarchy of dome-headed elements creates a vast, oblong interior crowned by the central dome, with a span of feet. The Imperial Gate, reserved only for the emperor, was the main entrance of the cathedral. A long ramp from the northern part of the outer narthex leads up to the upper gallery, which was traditionally reserved for the empress and her entourage. It is laid out in a horseshoe shape that encloses the nave until it reaches the apse.
The Church of the Holy Apostles, originally built under the purview of Constantine in , was no longer considered grand enough when Justinian ascended the throne.
Because of this, the architects Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles designed and built a new church on the same site in the late s consecrated in The western arm of the cross extended farther than the others to form an atrium. Because blueprints did not exist yet, and because the church was demolished shortly after the Ottoman conquest, the design details of the building are a matter of dispute.
It was recognized at the time as an adornment to all of Constantinople. However, the Saints Sergius and Bacchus were said to intervene and vouched to Justin that his nephew was innocent. After the restoration of his title, Justinian commissioned Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles to construct the church as a gesture of thanksgiving.
When the church was built, it shared its narthex, atrium and propylaea with another church. It became one of the most important religious structures in Constantinople. Little Hagia Sophia : A general view of the interior, looking south and west. The Early Byzantine period witnessed the establishment of strict guidelines for the production of icons.
Icon painting, as distinct from other forms of painting, emerged in the Early Byzantine period as an aid to religious devotion. In contrast , earlier Christian art had relied more on allegory and symbolism.
For example, earlier art might have featured a lamb or a fish rather than Christ in human form. Before long, religious figures were being depicted in their human form to emphasize their humanity as well as their spirituality. While this issue would be debated and challenged during the later Iconoclastic period, for a time, images of the saints in icon paintings flourished. After the adoption of Christianity as the only permissible Roman state religion under Theodosius I, Christian art began to change not only in quality and sophistication but also in nature.
Paintings of martyrs and their feats began to appear, and early writers commented on their lifelike effect. Statues in the round were avoided as being too close to the principal artistic focus of pagan cult practices, as they have continued to be with some small-scale exceptions throughout the history of Eastern Christianity.
Icons were more religious than aesthetic in nature. They were understood to manifest the unique presence of the figure depicted by means of a likeness to that figure maintained through carefully maintained canons of representation. Therefore, very little room is made for artistic license. Almost every aspect of the subject matter has a symbolic aspect. Christ, the saints, and the angels all have halos. Angels, as well as some depictions of the Holy Trinity, have wings because they are messengers.
Figures have consistent facial appearances, hold attributes personal to them, and use a few conventional poses. Color plays an important role, as well. Gold represents the radiance of Heaven. Red signifies divine life, while blue is the color of human life. White is the Uncreated Light of God, only used for scenes depicting the resurrection and transfiguration of Christ.
In icons of Jesus and Mary, Jesus wears a red undergarment with a blue outer garment God as Human , and Mary wears a blue undergarment with a red outer garment humanity granted divine gifts. Thus, the doctrine of deification is conveyed by icons. Most icons incorporate some calligraphic text naming the person or event depicted. Because letters also carry symbolic significance, writing is often presented in a stylized manner. Russian icon depicting the Holy Trinity : Christ, seated in the middle, wears a blue garment over a red one to symbolize his status as God made human.
All three figures wear wings to signify their roles as messengers. The gold background places their location in Heaven. Early Byzantine icons were painted in encaustic on wooden panel and, like Egyptian funerary portraits produced in the same media , they appeared very lifelike. Subsequently, the mosaics came to depict non-religious subjects as well. It was during this period that many grand structures were built in the city and these buildings were adorned with exquisite mosaics.
The earliest of these mosaics in Ravenna were commissioned directly by Justinian or his wife. But the trend continued over subsequent centuries and many iconic mosaics of Ravenna date to 7th century. During the 8th century, the Byzantine rulers decreed the use of any icons to be heretic. This included the depiction of religious figures which had been the dominant theme of Byzantine mosaics in previous centuries. As a consequence, many of the mosaics created during the previous centuries were destroyed during this period.
After the ban on icons was lifted in the Empire, the creation of mosaics underwent a rapid revival. For instance, The Church of Saints Lot and Procopius, has an extravagantly tiled floor portraying grape harvest. This well-crafted handmade Byzantine mosaic , is located in the baptistery where children were baptized and thus included into the Christian faith.
Mount Nebo Mosaics , Jordan. Another mosaic art found in Mount Nebo, shows men and animals divided into four scenes. The first two depict hunting scenarios between soldiers and a lioness or a shepherd and a lion.
Moreover, the other two represent a more harmonic relationship between animals and humans. As for the boundaries of the mosaics, they have a chain-like pattern. In this particular church, the Mosaic of Transfiguration is in the spot light. It represents two occasions when God was seen by the prophet Elijah and by the Prophet Moses. Within this religious piece of art, Christ is depicted as having black hair and a beard.
Around him, the two prophets linger dazzled by his appearance. Because it was so skillfully crafted, it has been speculated that mosaic art practitioners straight from Constantinople.
Arian Baptistery Mosaics. Although research has suggested that the lower walls once fitted with lavish mosaics, the dome of the church still possess an assortment of mosaics. They are led by St.
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